Arthashastra, composed by Kautilya in 4th century BCE, is a sophisticated and detailed treatise on statecraft. This timeless classic by one of the greatest statesmen and philosopher is a very comprehensive collection of strategies, roles and actions for different elements of the state.
Table of Contents
Kautilya, aka Chanakya or Vishnu Gupta, was one of the greatest thinker, strategist and statesman of all time. He is regarded as a great king maker, and is credited with guiding Chandragupta Maurya to overthrow the Nanda Dynasty and establishment of Mauryan Empire. Kautilya was the Chief Minister in the Mauryan State, and a constant guide and teacher to the Mauryan King.
But Arthashastra is a general instructive doctrine for a potential future king, containing lessons on how to rule well. In fact, it contains no reference to Mauryan Empire, Chandragupta Maurya, or Patliputra. Thus, it is a theoretical work and must not be read as a description of Mauryan Empire.
Age and Authorship of Arthashastra
Arthashastra specifically mentions in chapter 1 that “This Sástra, bereft of undue enlargement and easy to grasp and understand, has been composed by Kautilya”.
Chapter 15 says, “This Sástra has been made by him who from intolerance (of misrule) quickly rescued the scriptures and the science of weapons and the earth which had passed to the Nanda king”.
In spite of these verses in Arthashastra itself, mentioning its author and period of composition, there are doubts raised by some scholars regarding the age and authorship of Arthashastra. However, there is plenty of evidence, other than Arthashastra, to suggest that at least major part of Arthashastra was composed by Kautilya during the Mauryan times. Some of the later works supporting this view are Vishakhadatta’s Mudrarakshasha and Ban Bhatt’s Kadambari.
Kautilya – A Realistic Thinker
Kautilya was a realistic thinker. And his Arthashastra is a work rooted in political realism. Kautilya frees the King from all moral constraints, if his acts are in pursuance of National interests. Thus, he clearly accords primacy to the state, over personal morality of the king, while formulating state policy. Kautilya argues that the state is supreme and for a king morality is secondary to politics. Though he mentions that the subjects should follow the moral principles. Thus, Kautilya is not immoral, he just recommends different morality for the King and the populace.
This concept of ‘Dual Morality’ – one for the King and another for his subjects is also discussed in a much later (16th century) work by Machiavelli – ‘The Prince’.
Kautilya v/s Machiavelli
Kautilya’s Arthashastra and Machiavelli’s The Prince’, both are works entrenched in political realism, guiding a future king in the affairs of statecraft. However, Kautilya’s realism is considered to be much harsher than that of Machiavelli, so much so that his thoughts are also regarded as ‘Radical Machiavellianism’. This led Max Weber to state that, compared to Arthashastra, Machiavelli’s ‘The Price’ “is harmless”.
Further, Arthashastra is much more comprehensive, dealing with almost every affair of state – politics, economics, law and order, diplomacy and war – compared to ‘The Prince’ which focusses mostly over statecraft.
Organization of Arthashastra
The manuscript of Arthashastra was discovered by R Shama Shastri in 1904. The first English translation was carried out in 1915, followed by German, Russian, and other translations. Arthashastra consists of 15 books, 150 chapters, 180 sections and 6,000 slokas, which broadly talk about the King, his council and departments of government, civil and criminal laws, diplomacy and war.
Arthashastra is a detailed instruction to a wise king or would be conqueror – which Kautilya calls as Vijigishu – on the art and science of statecraft – politics, economy, law and order, diplomacy and war. The objective of Arthashastra can be summarized as three-fold – good governance, leading to good economy which further leads to expansion of territory.
Major Themes of Arthashastra
Nature of State
Kautilya believes in Monarchical form of government, as against a republican, aristocratic, or theocratic setup.
Kautilya states that just as a body is composed of several organs, similarly, a state consists of seven constituent elements – Swami (King), Amatya (Ministers), Kosh (treasury), Janapad (territory and population of state), Durga (fort) Mitra (allies) and Danda (Punishment). And a healthy state can only be constituted with healthy constituent elements.
Kautilyan King
In Arthashastra, the king embodies all the constituent elements of the state, and represents the entire state. He is a symbol of all the qualities of the society, and so Kautilya advises the king to achieve the highest levels of self-control, through a foundation of knowledge and discipline. Kautilya advises the king to avoid over-indulgence in pleasures of life.
A king ‘s life should be fully dedicated to the welfare of his subjects. Kautilya states, “In the happiness of his subjects lies his happiness; in their welfare his welfare. He shall not consider as good only that which pleases him, but treat as beneficial to him whatever pleases his subjects”. Kautilya recommends the King must devote 12 hours a day to state affairs.
Kautilya, said that King should have complete knowledge of Vedas, Arthashastra and Dandaniti. He should also be a master in the technique of state craft. He should have highest quality of leadership and should possess intellect, energy.
Although a supporter of Monarchy, Kautilya recommends that the king should not be an absolutist and must take the advice of his ministers in running the administration. Kautilya says, “A king can reign only with the help of others; one wheel alone does not move (a chariot). Therefore, a king should appoint advisers (as councillors and ministers) and listen to their advice”. Kautilya has also detailed the qualities to be possessed by an individual, to be appointed as minister.
Kautilyan Society
Kautilya also believes in four-fold Varna system – Brahmin, Kshatriya, Vaishya and Shudra. But his classification of Varnas is more liberal than that of previous scholars such as Manu. However, he believes in supremacy of Brahmins. He has prescribed lesser punishment to Brahmins for committing same crime.
Economy
Hinduism gives the concept of Purusharth, i.e., four goals of human life – Dharma (righteousness, moral values), Artha (economic prosperity), Kama (sensual pleasure) and Moksha (liberation, self-actualization). Kautilya states clearly that Artha is superior to Dharma and Kama, because the latter are dependent on it.
Arthashastra is a realistic document on statecraft and it rejects the concept of divine laws. Kautilya states, “Wealth will pass away from that childish man who inquires most after the stars; for wealth is the star for wealth; what will the stars do?”
Thus, Arthashastra lays great emphasis on Artha or material well-being and economic property. The economic prosperity of a state is denoted by Kosha (treasury). Kautilya states that the king should be active in management of economy.
Kautilya says all state activities depend on treasury. From wealth comes the power of the government. Treasury funds the army, which is vital for protection and acquisition of territory. The relationship between wealth and military power is so critical, that Kautilya insists the army and the treasury should always be under the control of king.
Sources of revenue detailed in Arthashastra are income from crown property, from mines and metallurgy, from agriculture and other public works, from forests, from state-controlled activities such as manufacturing industry—including salt, liquors, and leisure activities (courtesans, prostitutes, entertainers, gambling and betting)—taxes in cash and in kind, customs duties, auctions, gate and roadway tolls, transaction taxes, tariffs on trade, and a variety of fines.
It is important that the king does not rely too heavily on any one source, and that the process or amount of extracted revenue does not negatively affect the revenue stream by unduly curtailing production or impoverishing the population. Thus, Kautilya instructs that any industry at its infancy must not be taxed. Also, certain activities like yagnya etc. should be exempted from taxation because of their importance in life.
Kautilya says. “Just as fruits are gathered from a garden as often as they become ripe, so revenue shall be collected as often as it becomes ripe. Collection of revenue or of fruits, when unripe, shall never be carried on, lest their source may be injured, causing immense trouble”.
Law and Justice
Kautilya states that an essential duty of government is maintaining order. Social order as well as police or judicial order is needed to prevent and punish criminal activity. Kautilya enumerates topics concerning civil law that include family laws, laws of contracts, and labor laws in addition to criminal law that includes recommendations for a penal code. A full description of legal system containing details on the legal procedures, the law of evidence, investigation, and forensic science.
Prevention of crime and maintenance of order in society, in Kautilya’s view, are vital for prosperity and economic development. Clandestine agents were to be employed for collecting information about various crimes.
Spy System
Kautilya has paid special attention towards arranging elaborate spy system. He advocates creation of a secret service with spies, double agents, and specialists, including assassins, as a task of paramount importance for the king, and hence the state. The secret service was deemed essential for the security of the kingdom.
Kautilya says, “The arrow shot by an archer may or may not kill a single man; but skillful intrigue devised by wise men can kill even those who are in the womb”.
These secret agents were disguised as farmers, students, ascetics, nuns, servants etc. These agents were required to carry out tasks such as gathering intelligence, maintaining vigilance, testing the loyalty of ministers, and killing secretly enemy chieftains and kings.
Foreign Policy
Kautilya states that “The welfare of a state depends on an active foreign policy”. Thus, he strongly recommends pursuing an active foreign policy, to facilitate the expansion of the kingdom. The framework of foreign policy provided in Arthashastra is concerned with a state interacting with numerous other states i.e., a multipolar setup.
The general policy guidance provided by Kautilya is that a king shall make peace with an equally powerful or a stronger king, but wage war against a weaker king. Thus, the nature of foreign policy adopted by states depend upon the relative power equation. Treatises must be negotiated and entered upon between states while carrying out a policy of peace. As a skilful negotiator, Kautilya insists on foregoing short-term advantages when concluding treaties, looking instead to the longer-term effects.
Kautilya views diplomacy as an instrument to achieve the ultimate objective of state consolidation and advancement. He gives Six Measures of Foreign Policy to be employed by a state, while dealing with another state. These are –
- Making peace with a treaty (Samdhi)
- The policy of hostility (Vigraha)
- The policy of neutrality (Asana)
- Marching on an expedition (Yana)
- Seeking shelter or protection (Samshraya) with another king
- The dual policy (Dvaidhbhava) of peace with one king and hostility with another at the same time
Which policy is selected depends on the power of the state vis-à-vis other states, as well as the overarching environment. However, the all-prudent Kautilya recommends peace, if, in a given situation, the same outcome can be attained either by peace or war.
Kautilya also mentions the use of four ancient concepts that overlap the six measures of foreign policy. These concepts are adopting a conciliatory attitude (Sama), placating with rewards and gifts (Dana), sowing dissensions among enemies (Bheda), and using force (Danda).
Mandala Theory or Circle of States
Mandala or Groups of States, as conceptualized by Kautilya, consist of twelve kings or states. Mandala is a theoretical concept which examines the relationship of a state with other states, based on their geographical location. Kautilya says that the neighboring state is most likely an enemy state, seeking its territorial expansion. And the state next to the enemy state is most likely an ally. Thus, the entire circle can be broadly divided in two groups of friendly and enemy states, with the Vijigishu or the conqueror king at the center. The number twelve is not static and can vary based on circumstances.
War
Kautilya describes war as an expression of foreign policy of the state. The objective of war is protection of the state from external aggression and enlargement of territory by conquest.
Kautilya gives four types of war:
- War by counsel (Mantrayuddha), using diplomacy
- Open war (Prakasayuddha), with specified time and place
- Concealed war (Kutayuddha), which refers to irregular warfare and psychological warfare
- Clandestine war (Gudayuddha), using agents, double agents, allies, vassal kings etc
For recruitment in the army, Kautilya preferred drawing from trained traditional warrior clan i.e., Kshatriyas. However, if a larger force is required than could be drawn from the kshatriyas, it could be augmented through the use of other professional classes (shudras and Vaishyas) as part of the forces.
Further, Kautilya lists eight factors that have a bearing on the success or failure of a military campaign. These are:
1)Power – According to Kautilya, in a battle, power is not only the military might, but it also includes intellectual power, enthusiasm and morale.
2)Place – It concerns geography and terrain of military campaign
3)Time – time refers to the expected duration of the battle
4) Right kind of troops to be mobilized. Four wings were described in the Arthashastra: elephants, chariots, horses, and infantry
5)Season or weather conditions of campaign
6)Analysis of the relative value of the gain compared to likely losses
7) Acquiring the support and political will of the population
8) Possibility of treachery, either internal or external
Kautilya also advocates the use of psychological warfare and propaganda against the enemy forces. Finally, Kautilya recommends that a conqueror rule the acquired territory justly, in accordance with the customs and traditions of the local people. He advises the conqueror to treat the defeated king with honor, and the defeated soldiers of the enemy humanely.
Welfare of people as the centre of statecraft
While Kautilya is a hard-core realist while dealing with external affairs of state, not shying away from seemingly immoral means like spying and covert assassinations, he shows much liberal side while addressing the governance of people. He emphasizes on the primacy of people in the governance of state, and advises the king to adopt policies which are conducive for safety, comfort and economic prosperity of people of state.
Kautilya, while stressing on the welfare of people says, “It is the people who constitute a kingdom; like a barren cow, a kingdom without people yields nothing”. Also, “A king who observes his duty of protecting the people justly, according to law, goes to heaven, unlike one who does not protect his people, or inflicts unjust punishment”.
The duties of a king as stated by Kautilya are clear. These are protection of the people of the state from external aggression; maintenance of law and order within the state; and safeguarding the economic welfare of the people.
Kautilya advises the king to ensure just and compassionate rule of even the territory acquired by violent conquest. He recommends that the king follow policies beneficial to the populace of the acquired territory, tolerable to the new citizenry ‘s culture, and to act domestically always according to the law.
